Coronary Calcium Scan: Should I Have This Test?
Coronary Calcium Scan: Should I Have This Test?Skip to the navigationYou may want to have a say in this decision, or you may simply want to follow your doctor's recommendation. Either way, this information will help you understand what your choices are so that you can talk to your doctor about them. Coronary Calcium Scan: Should I Have This Test?Get the factsYour options- Have a coronary artery calcium scan.
- Don't have a coronary artery calcium scan.
This information is only for people who are curious about
their risk for heart disease but don't have angina symptoms, such as chest pain or pressure. Key points to remember- A coronary calcium scan checks for calcium buildup in the
coronary arteries. Calcium in these arteries may be a sign of heart disease.
A high score on a calcium scan can mean that you have a higher chance of having
a heart attack than someone with a low score.
- The results of a coronary calcium scan may prompt you to make
some lifestyle changes, such as exercising, eating better, losing weight, and quitting
smoking. You might also decide to take medicine such as cholesterol or blood pressure medicine.
- People who are at medium risk for heart disease will get the
most benefit from this test. Your doctor can help you find out your risk. Knowing your risk for a heart attack is a key part of your decision to get a scan.
- A calcium scan is not helpful to patients who have a low or high risk of heart disease.
- A calcium scan can give your doctor more information
about your risk for heart disease. If you have a high score, you and your doctor may decide to start or change treatment to lower your risk.
- You
could get a high score from the test even if your arteries do not have signs of heart disease.
This could lead to other tests or treatments that you don't need.
- Not all arteries that have early signs of heart disease have calcium. So you could get a low
calcium score and still be at risk.
- Not all health plans will pay
for this test. The cost can range from about $100 to $400.
FAQs A
coronary calcium scan is a test for people who have no
symptoms of heart disease but may be at risk for getting it. The test uses
computed tomography (CT) to check for calcium buildup
in
plaque on the walls of the coronary arteries. The
coronary arteries wrap around the heart and supply it with blood and oxygen.
Calcium in these arteries is a sign of heart disease. During the test, a CT scan takes pictures of your heart in thin sections.
The result is a score based on the amount of calcium seen on the scan. The
higher your calcium score, the higher your risk for a heart attack. The test
takes about 30 minutes. Most health insurance plans don't pay for
coronary calcium scanning. The cost can range from about $100 to $400.
CT angiography is a test that uses computed tomography to see if an artery is narrowed or blocked. It's different from a coronary calcium scan and may be best after you already have symptoms of heart disease and other test results are not clear. Talk with your doctor if you
want to know more about CT angiography. This Decision Point is about coronary
calcium scanning. Your doctor
may want you to have a coronary calcium scan if it can help you and your doctor make decisions about how to lower your risk for heart disease and heart attack. This test might be most helpful for people who do not have heart disease
but who are at medium risk for heart disease.
Your doctor can help you know your risk of heart disease and heart attack. Your doctor will look at things that put you at risk, including blood pressure, cholesterol, diabetes, and your age, sex, and race. In most cases, the results from your physical exam and other tests will give your
doctor enough information about your risk for heart disease. A coronary calcium scan is not advised for routine screening for
coronary artery disease.footnote 1 This test might not tell your doctor any more about your risk for heart disease than your risk factors do. Risk factors are things that can increase your risk for heart disease, such as
diabetes,
high blood pressure,
high cholesterol, and smoking. This screening test is not for you if: - You don't have any risk factors for heart disease, so you have a low risk of a heart attack.
- You are at high risk for heart disease or you were diagnosed with heart disease. (You should already be under a doctor's care.)
This test may not be right for you if you are a man younger than 40 or a woman younger than 50. This is because younger people typically do not have much calcium buildup in their arteries yet. After the scan, you will
get a test result that is a number. This is your calcium score. The score can
range from 0 to more than 400. Higher calcium scores mean that you may be more likely to have heart disease. People who score between 100 and 400 or higher, and
who are at medium risk for heart disease, are more likely to have a heart
attack in the next 3 to 5 years than people who score 0.footnote 2 After you have the test, talk with your doctor
about your results. Many people only learn that they have heart disease when they have a
heart attack. A coronary calcium scan is one way to find out if you have early
heart disease before it gets worse. After you know your risk, you and your doctor can make decisions about how to lower it. You can make
lifestyle changes such as having a heart-healthy eating plan, staying at a healthy weight, getting more exercise,
and quitting smoking. You might also decide to take medicine such as cholesterol or blood pressure medicine. A coronary calcium
scan can give your doctor more information about your risk for heart disease,
especially if you already have risk factors. Then you can make decisions about how to lower your risk. For example, you and your doctor can use your score plus your other risk factors to decide whether cholesterol medicine is right for you. - You could get a high score from the test even
if your arteries do not have signs of heart disease. This could lead to extra tests that you don't
need. Or it could cause you to worry when there's no reason. But these kinds of
results are most likely to happen in people who are at low risk for heart
disease. So if you already know that you're at low risk, you shouldn't get this
test.
- Not all arteries that have early signs of heart disease have calcium. A low test score may
make you feel safe even though you're still at risk.
- There is a slight chance of developing cancer from having cardiac calcium scoring. The chance is higher in people who have many radiation tests. If you are concerned about this risk, talk to your doctor about the amount of radiation this test may give you and confirm that the test is needed.
- You are at medium risk for heart disease, based on your risk
factors.
- Your doctor thinks that the results of this test could
change your treatment and lower your risk for heart disease.
Compare your options | |
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What is usually involved? |
| |
|---|
What are the benefits? |
| |
|---|
What are the risks and side effects? |
| |
|---|
Have a coronary calcium
scan Have a coronary calcium
scan - You will lie on a
table connected to the CT scanner. The table slides into the opening in the
machine, and the scanner moves around your body. The test takes about 30
minutes.
- A coronary calcium
scan can give your doctor more information about your risk for heart disease,
especially if you have several risk factors.
- The results of the test may prompt you to make lifestyle changes
or take medicines that can help your heart.
- The
test can give a high score even if your arteries do not have signs of heart disease. This might
lead to tests or treatment you don't need.
- Not all arteries that have signs of heart disease have calcium. So you could get a low
test score and still be at risk.
- Most health insurers don't pay for this test.
Don't have a coronary
calcium scan Don't have a coronary
calcium scan - Instead of having a CT scan,
your doctor gets information about your heart disease risk from a physical exam
and other tests.
- You make healthy lifestyle changes or take medicines that can help
your heart without taking a test.
- You don't pay for a test you may
not need. Most insurers do not pay for this test.
- You avoid possible unnecessary treatment or worry.
- If you are at
medium risk for heart disease and don't get a coronary calcium scan, you may
not have all the information you need to reduce your risk.
My mom had
a heart attack in her early 60s, followed by bypass surgery. She didn't have a
clue that she had heart disease. I don't want that to happen to me. I already know I have a couple of health issues that raise my risk for heart disease. So I'm going
to ask my doctor about getting a coronary calcium scan to check my risk.
My wife has been bugging me to get this
test. So I asked my doctor about it. He said my risk for getting heart disease
is pretty low even though I have high blood pressure. I'm taking medicine for
that and for high cholesterol. I'm also trying to eat better and exercise. I
just don't think the test is going to tell me more about my risk than I already
know. My doctor says I am at risk for heart disease. She wants me to have a coronary calcium scan so that we can get a better idea of my risk of a heart attack. Then, we can decide whether I should start taking medicine so I can lower my risk. I like the idea of having all the information before I make decisions. So I'm going to have the test. I get a physical exam from my doctor every
year, and she says I'm in pretty good shape. But ever since I passed 50, I've
been worried about heart disease. I saw an ad for this test in the newspaper
and asked my doctor about it. It turns out that in healthy people like me, the
test results aren't very reliable. I'm going to just keep getting an annual
checkup. What matters most to you?
Your personal feelings are just as important as the medical facts. Think about what matters most to you in this decision, and show how you feel about the following statements.
Reasons to have a coronary calcium scan Reasons not to have a coronary calcium scan I need more information about my risk so I can commit to making lifestyle changes or taking medicines. I already know that I should make some lifestyle changes to keep my heart healthy. More important Equally important More important It's worth it to me to pay for this test myself. My insurance won't pay for this test, and I can't afford it. More important Equally important More important I want to take any tests that could help me find out my risk for heart disease. I don't want to take tests I don't need. More important Equally important More important I want to take this test because I need more information about my risk for having a heart attack. I already know my risk for having a heart attack, so I don't need this test. More important Equally important More important My other important reasons: My other important reasons: More important Equally important More important Where are you leaning now?
Now that you've thought about the facts and your feelings, you may have a general idea of where you stand on this decision. Show which way you are leaning right now.
Having a coronary calcium scan NOT having a coronary calcium scan Leaning toward Undecided Leaning toward What else do you need to make your decision?1.
How sure do you feel right now about your decision? Not sure at all Somewhat sure Very sure Your SummaryHere's a record of your answers. You can use it to talk with your doctor or loved ones about your decision. Next stepsWhich way you're leaningHow sure you areYour commentsKey concepts that you understoodKey concepts that may need reviewCredits | Author | Healthwise Staff |
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| Primary Medical Reviewer | E. Gregory Thompson, MD - Internal Medicine |
|---|
| Primary Medical Reviewer | Martin J. Gabica, MD - Family Medicine |
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| Specialist Medical Reviewer | Stephen Fort, MD, MRCP, FRCPC - Interventional Cardiology |
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References Citations - U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (2009). Using nontraditional risk factors in coronary heart disease risk assessment. Available online: http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf/uspscoronaryhd.htm.
- Budoff M, et al. (2006). Assessment of coronary artery disease by cardiac computed tomography: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association Committee on Cardiovascular Imaging and Intervention, Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention, and Committee on Cardiac Imaging, Council on Clinical Cardiology. Circulation, 114(16): 1761-1791.
Other Works Consulted - Daubert MA, et al. (2011). Computed tomography of the heart. In V Fuster et al., eds., Hurst's The Heart, 13th ed., vol. 1, pp. 599-630. New York: McGraw-Hill.
- Goff DC Jr, et al. (2013). 2013 ACC/AHA guideline on the assessment of cardiovascular risk: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation, published online November 12, 2013. DOI: 10.1161/01.cir.0000437741.48606.98. Accessed November 22, 2013.
- Greenland P, et al. (2007). ACCF/AHA 2007 clinical expert consensus document on coronary artery calcium scoring by computed tomography in global cardiovascular risk assessment and in evaluation of patients with chest pain. Circulation, 115(3): 402-426.
- Kim KP, et al. (2009). Coronary artery calcification screening: Estimated radiation dose and cancer risk. Archives of Internal Medicine, 169(13): 1188-1194.
- Stone NJ, et al. (2013). 2013 ACC/AHA guideline on the treatment of blood cholesterol to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk in adults: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation, published online November 12, 2013. DOI: 10.1161/01.cir.0000437738.63853.7a. Accessed November 18, 2013.
- Taylor AJ, et al. (2010). ACCF/SCCT/ACR/AHA/ASE/ASNC/NASCI/SCAI/SCMR 2010 - Appropriate use criteria for cardiac computed tomography: A Report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation Appropriate Use Criteria Task Force, the Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography, the American College of Radiology, the American Heart Association, the American Society of Echocardiography, the American Society of Nuclear Cardiology, the North American Society for Cardiovascular Imaging, the Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, and the Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 56(22): 1864-1894.
- U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (2009). Using nontraditional risk factors in coronary heart disease risk assessment. Available online: http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf/uspscoronaryhd.htm.
You may want to have a say in this decision, or you may simply want to follow your doctor's recommendation. Either way, this information will help you understand what your choices are so that you can talk to your doctor about them. Coronary Calcium Scan: Should I Have This Test?Here's a record of your answers. You can use it to talk with your doctor or loved ones about your decision. - Get the facts
- Compare your options
- What matters most to you?
- Where are you leaning now?
- What else do you need to make your decision?
1. Get the FactsYour options- Have a coronary artery calcium scan.
- Don't have a coronary artery calcium scan.
This information is only for people who are curious about
their risk for heart disease but don't have angina symptoms, such as chest pain or pressure. Key points to remember- A coronary calcium scan checks for calcium buildup in the
coronary arteries. Calcium in these arteries may be a sign of heart disease.
A high score on a calcium scan can mean that you have a higher chance of having
a heart attack than someone with a low score.
- The results of a coronary calcium scan may prompt you to make
some lifestyle changes, such as exercising, eating better, losing weight, and quitting
smoking. You might also decide to take medicine such as cholesterol or blood pressure medicine.
- People who are at medium risk for heart disease will get the
most benefit from this test. Your doctor can help you find out your risk. Knowing your risk for a heart attack is a key part of your decision to get a scan.
- A calcium scan is not helpful to patients who have a low or high risk of heart disease.
- A calcium scan can give your doctor more information
about your risk for heart disease. If you have a high score, you and your doctor may decide to start or change treatment to lower your risk.
- You
could get a high score from the test even if your arteries do not have signs of heart disease.
This could lead to other tests or treatments that you don't need.
- Not all arteries that have early signs of heart disease have calcium. So you could get a low
calcium score and still be at risk.
- Not all health plans will pay
for this test. The cost can range from about $100 to $400.
FAQs What is a coronary calcium scan? A
coronary calcium scan is a test for people who have no
symptoms of heart disease but may be at risk for getting it. The test uses
computed tomography (CT) to check for calcium buildup
in
plaque on the walls of the coronary arteries. The
coronary arteries wrap around the heart and supply it with blood and oxygen.
Calcium in these arteries is a sign of heart disease. During the test, a CT scan takes pictures of your heart in thin sections.
The result is a score based on the amount of calcium seen on the scan. The
higher your calcium score, the higher your risk for a heart attack. The test
takes about 30 minutes. Most health insurance plans don't pay for
coronary calcium scanning. The cost can range from about $100 to $400.
CT angiography is a test that uses computed tomography to see if an artery is narrowed or blocked. It's different from a coronary calcium scan and may be best after you already have symptoms of heart disease and other test results are not clear. Talk with your doctor if you
want to know more about CT angiography. This Decision Point is about coronary
calcium scanning. Who should get a coronary calcium scan?Your doctor
may want you to have a coronary calcium scan if it can help you and your doctor make decisions about how to lower your risk for heart disease and heart attack. This test might be most helpful for people who do not have heart disease
but who are at medium risk for heart disease.
Your doctor can help you know your risk of heart disease and heart attack. Your doctor will look at things that put you at risk, including blood pressure, cholesterol, diabetes, and your age, sex, and race. In most cases, the results from your physical exam and other tests will give your
doctor enough information about your risk for heart disease. A coronary calcium scan is not advised for routine screening for
coronary artery disease.1 This test might not tell your doctor any more about your risk for heart disease than your risk factors do. Risk factors are things that can increase your risk for heart disease, such as
diabetes,
high blood pressure,
high cholesterol, and smoking. This screening test is not for you if: - You don't have any risk factors for heart disease, so you have a low risk of a heart attack.
- You are at high risk for heart disease or you were diagnosed with heart disease. (You should already be under a doctor's care.)
This test may not be right for you if you are a man younger than 40 or a woman younger than 50. This is because younger people typically do not have much calcium buildup in their arteries yet. What do the results mean?After the scan, you will
get a test result that is a number. This is your calcium score. The score can
range from 0 to more than 400. Higher calcium scores mean that you may be more likely to have heart disease. People who score between 100 and 400 or higher, and
who are at medium risk for heart disease, are more likely to have a heart
attack in the next 3 to 5 years than people who score 0.2 After you have the test, talk with your doctor
about your results. What are the benefits of a coronary calcium scan?Many people only learn that they have heart disease when they have a
heart attack. A coronary calcium scan is one way to find out if you have early
heart disease before it gets worse. After you know your risk, you and your doctor can make decisions about how to lower it. You can make
lifestyle changes such as having a heart-healthy eating plan, staying at a healthy weight, getting more exercise,
and quitting smoking. You might also decide to take medicine such as cholesterol or blood pressure medicine. A coronary calcium
scan can give your doctor more information about your risk for heart disease,
especially if you already have risk factors. Then you can make decisions about how to lower your risk. For example, you and your doctor can use your score plus your other risk factors to decide whether cholesterol medicine is right for you. What are the risks?- You could get a high score from the test even
if your arteries do not have signs of heart disease. This could lead to extra tests that you don't
need. Or it could cause you to worry when there's no reason. But these kinds of
results are most likely to happen in people who are at low risk for heart
disease. So if you already know that you're at low risk, you shouldn't get this
test.
- Not all arteries that have early signs of heart disease have calcium. A low test score may
make you feel safe even though you're still at risk.
- There is a slight chance of developing cancer from having cardiac calcium scoring. The chance is higher in people who have many radiation tests. If you are concerned about this risk, talk to your doctor about the amount of radiation this test may give you and confirm that the test is needed.
Why might your doctor recommend this test?- You are at medium risk for heart disease, based on your risk
factors.
- Your doctor thinks that the results of this test could
change your treatment and lower your risk for heart disease.
2. Compare your options| | Have a coronary calcium
scan | Don't have a coronary
calcium scan |
|---|
| What is usually involved? | - You will lie on a
table connected to the CT scanner. The table slides into the opening in the
machine, and the scanner moves around your body. The test takes about 30
minutes.
| - Instead of having a CT scan,
your doctor gets information about your heart disease risk from a physical exam
and other tests.
- You make healthy lifestyle changes or take medicines that can help
your heart without taking a test.
|
|---|
| What are the benefits? | - A coronary calcium
scan can give your doctor more information about your risk for heart disease,
especially if you have several risk factors.
- The results of the test may prompt you to make lifestyle changes
or take medicines that can help your heart.
| - You don't pay for a test you may
not need. Most insurers do not pay for this test.
- You avoid possible unnecessary treatment or worry.
|
|---|
| What are the risks and side effects? | - The
test can give a high score even if your arteries do not have signs of heart disease. This might
lead to tests or treatment you don't need.
- Not all arteries that have signs of heart disease have calcium. So you could get a low
test score and still be at risk.
- Most health insurers don't pay for this test.
| - If you are at
medium risk for heart disease and don't get a coronary calcium scan, you may
not have all the information you need to reduce your risk.
|
|---|
Personal storiesPersonal stories about coronary calcium scanning
These stories are based on information gathered from health professionals and consumers. They may be helpful as you make important health decisions.
"My mom had a heart attack in her early 60s, followed by bypass surgery. She didn't have a clue that she had heart disease. I don't want that to happen to me. I already know I have a couple of health issues that raise my risk for heart disease. So I'm going to ask my doctor about getting a coronary calcium scan to check my risk." "My wife has been bugging me to get this test. So I asked my doctor about it. He said my risk for getting heart disease is pretty low even though I have high blood pressure. I'm taking medicine for that and for high cholesterol. I'm also trying to eat better and exercise. I just don't think the test is going to tell me more about my risk than I already know." "My doctor says I am at risk for heart disease. She wants me to have a coronary calcium scan so that we can get a better idea of my risk of a heart attack. Then, we can decide whether I should start taking medicine so I can lower my risk. I like the idea of having all the information before I make decisions. So I'm going to have the test." "I get a physical exam from my doctor every year, and she says I'm in pretty good shape. But ever since I passed 50, I've been worried about heart disease. I saw an ad for this test in the newspaper and asked my doctor about it. It turns out that in healthy people like me, the test results aren't very reliable. I'm going to just keep getting an annual checkup." 3. What matters most to you?
Your personal feelings are just as important as the medical facts. Think about what matters most to you in this decision, and show how you feel about the following statements.
Reasons to have a coronary calcium scan Reasons not to have a coronary calcium scan I need more information about my risk so I can commit to making lifestyle changes or taking medicines. I already know that I should make some lifestyle changes to keep my heart healthy. More important Equally important More important It's worth it to me to pay for this test myself. My insurance won't pay for this test, and I can't afford it. More important Equally important More important I want to take any tests that could help me find out my risk for heart disease. I don't want to take tests I don't need. More important Equally important More important I want to take this test because I need more information about my risk for having a heart attack. I already know my risk for having a heart attack, so I don't need this test. More important Equally important More important My other important reasons: My other important reasons: More important Equally important More important 4. Where are you leaning now?
Now that you've thought about the facts and your feelings, you may have a general idea of where you stand on this decision. Show which way you are leaning right now.
Having a coronary calcium scan NOT having a coronary calcium scan Leaning toward Undecided Leaning toward 5. What else do you need to make your decision?
Check the facts
1.
Can anyone who is worried about heart disease benefit from a coronary calcium scan? You're right. People who are at medium risk for heart disease will get the most benefit from this test. If you are at low risk, the test results may not be reliable. If you are at high risk, you should already be under a doctor's care. 2.
Does a high score on a coronary calcium scan always mean you have heart disease? That's right. You could get a high score on the test even if your arteries do not have signs of heart disease. That could lead to other tests or treatments you don't need. 3.
Could you still be at risk for heart disease even if you get a low calcium score on the test? That's right. Not all arteries that have early signs of heart disease have calcium. So you could get a low score on the test and still be at risk. 4.
Is having a coronary calcium scan the only way to tell if you need to make lifestyle changes to help your heart, such as exercising, eating better, and not smoking? You are right. Even without taking the test, you can make healthy lifestyle changes that can help your heart. Decide what's next1.
Do you understand the options available to you? 2.
Are you clear about which benefits and side effects matter most to you? 3.
Do you have enough support and advice from others to make a choice? Certainty1.
How sure do you feel right now about your decision? Not sure at all Somewhat sure Very sure 2.
Check what you need to do before you make this decision. Credits | By | Healthwise Staff |
|---|
| Primary Medical Reviewer | E. Gregory Thompson, MD - Internal Medicine |
|---|
| Primary Medical Reviewer | Martin J. Gabica, MD - Family Medicine |
|---|
| Specialist Medical Reviewer | Stephen Fort, MD, MRCP, FRCPC - Interventional Cardiology |
|---|
References Citations - U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (2009). Using nontraditional risk factors in coronary heart disease risk assessment. Available online: http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf/uspscoronaryhd.htm.
- Budoff M, et al. (2006). Assessment of coronary artery disease by cardiac computed tomography: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association Committee on Cardiovascular Imaging and Intervention, Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention, and Committee on Cardiac Imaging, Council on Clinical Cardiology. Circulation, 114(16): 1761-1791.
Other Works Consulted - Daubert MA, et al. (2011). Computed tomography of the heart. In V Fuster et al., eds., Hurst's The Heart, 13th ed., vol. 1, pp. 599-630. New York: McGraw-Hill.
- Goff DC Jr, et al. (2013). 2013 ACC/AHA guideline on the assessment of cardiovascular risk: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation, published online November 12, 2013. DOI: 10.1161/01.cir.0000437741.48606.98. Accessed November 22, 2013.
- Greenland P, et al. (2007). ACCF/AHA 2007 clinical expert consensus document on coronary artery calcium scoring by computed tomography in global cardiovascular risk assessment and in evaluation of patients with chest pain. Circulation, 115(3): 402-426.
- Kim KP, et al. (2009). Coronary artery calcification screening: Estimated radiation dose and cancer risk. Archives of Internal Medicine, 169(13): 1188-1194.
- Stone NJ, et al. (2013). 2013 ACC/AHA guideline on the treatment of blood cholesterol to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk in adults: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation, published online November 12, 2013. DOI: 10.1161/01.cir.0000437738.63853.7a. Accessed November 18, 2013.
- Taylor AJ, et al. (2010). ACCF/SCCT/ACR/AHA/ASE/ASNC/NASCI/SCAI/SCMR 2010 - Appropriate use criteria for cardiac computed tomography: A Report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation Appropriate Use Criteria Task Force, the Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography, the American College of Radiology, the American Heart Association, the American Society of Echocardiography, the American Society of Nuclear Cardiology, the North American Society for Cardiovascular Imaging, the Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, and the Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 56(22): 1864-1894.
- U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (2009). Using nontraditional risk factors in coronary heart disease risk assessment. Available online: http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf/uspscoronaryhd.htm.
Note: The "printer friendly" document will not contain all the information available in the online document some Information (e.g. cross-references to other topics, definitions or medical illustrations) is only available in the online version.Current as of:
July 28, 2016 U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (2009). Using nontraditional risk factors in coronary heart disease risk assessment. Available online: http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf/uspscoronaryhd.htm. Budoff M, et al. (2006). Assessment of coronary artery disease by cardiac computed tomography: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association Committee on Cardiovascular Imaging and Intervention, Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention, and Committee on Cardiac Imaging, Council on Clinical Cardiology. Circulation, 114(16): 1761-1791. Last modified on: 8 September 2017
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